Frontiers were an integral feature of every medieval polity, and their spaces were defined by opposing spheres of influence, contact and connectivity. As these polities expanded and contracted, often as a result of military conquest and territorial annexation, their permeable edges became defined by transformative cultural landscapes. Here, the encounters between native or resident and incoming populations, from small elite groups through to larger numbers of migrants from diverse social backgrounds, resulted in varying degrees of cultural hybridity. This came to define frontier societies, and left an enduring impact even as borderlands continued to move. They also saw the reconfiguration of political, economic and religious landscapes as frontier authorities invested in both old and new centers, with varying degrees of continuity. Today, the remains of their fortified residences represent the most striking monuments associated with former frontiers. They remain at the center of public narratives regarding state formation and cultural conflict.Adopting the definition of frontiers as both the spaces at the edges of polities and the composite societies resulting from their territorial expansion, this book presents a multi-disciplinary study of their dynamics. Focusing on the western Mediterranean, it draws on case studies of cultural landscapes shaped by two contrasting periods of conquest, regime change and state formation: the Castilian and Aragonese conquests of al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia) and the French annexation of Occitania following the Albigensian Crusade. Integrating perspectives from settlement and landscape archaeology, geoarchaeology, zooarchaeology, archaeobotany, archaeometallurgy and isotopic analyses, this book provides a new framework for the study of the transformative spaces of medieval frontier societies.

Since the dawn of archaeology, the study of funerary contexts has provided invaluable insights into past societies, a trend that persists in contemporary research. Ongoing discoveries, site reevaluations, and advancements in techniques like DNA analysis continually reshape our understanding of the past.In the specific contexts we are addressing – the emergence of the first farming and herding communities in the Western Mediterranean – few regions in Europe display such systematic funerary practices. A notable example is the “Pit Burial” horizon in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula. Approximately 6,500 years ago in this area, there was a significant increase in the number of found inhumations, with some clustering in cemeteries containing several dozen individuals.Despite sporadic mentions in international publications, the details of the “Pit Burials” horizon funerary practices – such as burial locations, characteristics and performed analysis – are generally not well known, primarily because most of the publications have been presented in Catalan or Spanish. This limits awareness of one of the best-documented archaeological records shedding light on Neolithic communities in the Western Mediterranean.Over a century, the northeastern Iberian Peninsula has yielded numerous Neolithic burials, totaling over 650 graves, predominantly featuring single inhumations. Many of these graves, excavated in ground pits, remain remarkably intact, facilitating interpretations of burial treatments and grave goods, indicative of time and effort invested in acquisition and production.Furthermore, this was also a period of well-established social networks, facilitating the distribution of materials such as flint, obsidian, or jadeite for crafting lithic tools, and variscite for producing ornaments across extensive territories spanning hundreds of kilometers. These networks had an impact on the social, economic, and ideological organization of these communities, as well as their interactions with other European populations. This interconnected world left archaeological traces, evident in the early stages of subsequent megalithic developments.

‘Chariots on Fire, Reins of Power’ presents the first comprehensive overview of 5th century BC elite graves from the Lower Rhine-Meuse region. Characterised by imported grave goods such as bronze vessels, horse tack, weapons and occasionally two-wheeled vehicles, these strikingly rich cremation burials are the northernmost representatives of an elite culture that had its roots in the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène culture of more southern regions in France and the German Rhineland. This book is the result of an interdisciplinary study of this northern group of graves, prompted by the recent discovery of a new chariot burial at Heumen, the Netherlands. It will be of great interest to anyone interested in the material culture of the Iron Age and the wider debate about social transformations in the European region at this time. All elite graves in the area were reexamined from a practice perspective, including the examination of all grave goods using a wide range of techniques, including examination of use-wear traces and XRF-analysis. Physical anthropological study of cremated remains revealed new insights into the ages and sex of the elite dead, and strontium analysis provided valuable insights into Middle Iron Age mobility. Technical study from a practical equestrian perspective revealed the presence of both chariots with accompanying draught horses, as well as riding horses that wore elaborately decorated tack. The 5th century BC reveals itself as a highly dynamic period in the study area, with the appearance of elite graves being just one element in the broad spectrum of social changes that occurred during this phase. The urnfields fell into widespread disuse, small new cemeteries with flat graves emerged, a practice of inhumation was introduced in the Dutch river area, and ‘Marne ceramics’, a new pottery style, spread rapidly. In order to understand these complex regional dynamics, this book proposes a model that allows scope for intensive interregional connectivity, demographic fluctuations and probably also the small-scale immigration of southern groups, not just elites but lower social groups as well.

Des spécialistes de l’ensemble de l’Europe décrivent les enjeux politiques et scientifiques auxquelles a présidé la fondation des musées d’archéologie entre 1848 et 1914. Au travers de personnalités éminentes, le livre restitue un tour d’horizon européen des institutions muséales abritant les vestiges issus du sol. Au-delà d’une histoire de l’institution, il s’agit de montrer comment une pensée politique et des conceptions historiques se sont retrouvées reflétées dans les musées, en retraçant aussi bien une histoire scientifique que toute une société savante et l’esprit d’une époque. Entre hier et aujourd’hui, quels musées au sein d’une même nation, quelles réalités et quelles politiques ? Les musées d’archéologie doivent-ils toujours raconter l’histoire de la nation, et quelle histoire ? Comment gèrent-ils la contradiction qui pèse entre la recherche scientifique, en perpétuelle interrogation, et le désir de se rattacher à des racines ancrées dans un socle identitaire stable ? Aujourd’hui au cœur d’un nouveau paysage des musées d’archéologie, réel ou idéal, ces questions sont également abordées.English abstractSpecialists from across Europe describe the political and scientific challenges that accompanied the foundation of archaeological museums between 1848 and 1914. Through eminent personalities, the book provides a European overview of museum institutions housing artifacts derived from the ground. Beyond the history of the institution, the aim is to demonstrate how political thought and historical conceptions found reflection in museums, tracing not only a scientific history but also an entire scholarly society and the spirit of an era.Between the past and the present, which museums exist within a nation, what realities, and what policies? Should archaeological museums always narrate the history of the nation, and which history should that be? How do they manage the contradiction that arises from the perpetual questioning of scientific research and the desire to connect with roots firmly entrenched in a stable identity? Today, at the heart of a new landscape of archaeological museums, whether real or ideal, these questions are also addressed.

As central places of human interaction, cities influence the reality of our lives like no other phenomenon. They are in a highly complex, reciprocal relationship with changing environmental, social, political, economic and religious constellations. Accordingly, the demands placed on cities and the ideas associated with them are often subject to highly dynamic change. Especially against the backdrop of increasingly rapid urbanisation, shaping this change is one of today’s central challenges and it deserves a prominent position in public discourse.The booklet “Urban Design” aims to show the complexity of this discourse. It invites reflection on the possibilities of designing cities and their impact on the present and the future. To this end, it brings together contributions from very different disciplines, each of which provides their own perspectives on the phenomenon of the city.A basic idea here is that contemporary cities cannot be designed without a deeper understanding of their historical dimension. On a practical level, this entails the (selective) visualisation of the archaeological cultural heritage, with its implications for identity politics. But its is also concerned with the dependence of historical city images on contemporary discourses, for example, religious ideas and their political utilisation or literary imaginations of the urban.Moreover, the booklet also wants to inquire about the direct effects of material urban design on the residents. For instance, design characteristics influence orientation and movement in urban space and thus determine the movement options of handicapped and elderly people. The urban environment also has a direct impact on human health.The extent to which current discourses on environmental problems and climate change are changing the requirements for urban design is exemplified by contributions on the topics of transport and climate-neutral construction. It is to be expected that innovative ideas in these areas, in particular, will change the appearance of the cities of the future in the long term.

Before the introduction of Roman temples in the Low Countries, there used to be ‘open air cult places’ in the Iron Age. That is at least the assumption based on descriptions given by classical writers and several structures typified as sanctuaries that were excavated in France.Several of these French sanctuaries portray long usage, modifications, disarticulated human remains, and depositions of animal bones and Iron Age weaponry. However, the regularly encountered rectangular structures in Belgium and the Netherlands that are often interpreted as cult places do not have any of these indicators. Even though the shape is similar, the evidence these structures deliver testifies to short term utilisation, pottery depositions and a vaguely defined relation to cremation graves.Can these structures and accompanying depositions be perceived as the result of actions to invoke gods or deities as is claimed for the French sanctuaries? The finds and features seem more suitable when the rectangular structures are interpreted as part of ancestral worship. Although, what does that actually entail? How did Iron Age people actually conceptualise or practise interaction with ancestral spirits?In this thesis the use of rectangular structures during the Iron Age is explored and the meaning of related depositions interpreted. The structures fulfilled a special sociocultural position in Iron Age society, emphasised by the deliberately chosen liminal location in an increasingly structured landscape.

The current paradigm-changing ancient DNA revolution is offering unparalleled insights into central problems within archaeology relating to the movement of populations and individuals, patterns of descent, relationships and aspects of identity – at many scales and of many different kinds. The impact of recent ancient DNA results can be seen particularly clearly in studies of the European Neolithic, the subject of contributions presented in this volume. We now have new evidence for the movement and mixture of people at the start of the Neolithic, as farming spread from the east, and at its end, when the first metals as well as novel styles of pottery and burial practices arrived in the Chalcolithic. In addition, there has been a wealth of new data to inform complex questions of identities and relationships. The terms of archaeological debate for this period have been permanently altered, leaving us with many issues.This volume stems from the online day conference of the Neolithic Studies Group held in November 2021, which aimed to bring geneticists and archaeologists together in the same forum, and to enable critical but constructive inter-disciplinary debate about key themes arising from the application of advanced ancient DNA analysis to the study of the European Neolithic. The resulting papers gathered here are by both geneticists and archaeologists. Individually, they form a series of significant, up-to-date, period and regional syntheses of various manifestations of the Neolithic across the Near East and Europe, including particularly Britain and Ireland. Together, they offer wide-ranging reflections on the progress of ancient DNA studies, and on their future reach and character.

The hunt is on for the most detailed histories of people in the remote past that we can achieve. We can now routinely, through Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates, construct much more precise chronologies than previously, down to the scales of lifetimes and generations, and even on occasion of decades. Better timing opens estimates of duration and the evaluation of the tempo of change. Rather than the conventional default perspective of generally slow change and much continuity, in blocks of time a couple of centuries long or more, we can now examine sequences that are often much more dynamic, quicker-changing, and from time to time more interrupted and punctuated than we had previously imagined. We can now write much more precise and ambitious narratives about the actions, decisions and choices of past people; the pre- can and should come out of prehistory. Despite the absence of written records, such narratives can be aligned much more closely with those of history and its concerns with the specific and the particular, and can serve to rid archaeology of its addictions to generalisation and fuzzy chronology. Coming out of a recent major project funded by the European Research Council, and with the experience of Gathering Time (Oxbow Books 2011) also behind it, The Times of their Lives sets out this case. It considers the varying timescales of archaeology, history and anthropology, and the construction of precise chronologies. It examines the reach of precision in a series of case studies across Neolithic Europe to do with big themes of settlement, monumentality and materiality through the sixth to third millennia cal BC. It goes on to consider the implications of much more precise chronologies for narratives of social differentiation and change through the Neolithic sequence, and reflects on how to combine the varying timescales presented by turning points in the long term, by the slow time of daily life, subsistence practices and population growth, and by lifetime and generational developments. It ends by looking ahead to a future archaeology, exploiting the best of archaeological science, which can write precise and detailed narratives for the people of early history. Though focused on the European Neolithic, The Times of their Lives sets a challenge for archaeology as a whole.

More than quarter of a century ago Richard Bradley published The Passage of Arms. It was conceived as An Archaeological Analysis of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits, but, as the author concedes, these terms were too narrowly focused for the complex subject of deliberate deposition and the period covered too short. A Geography of Offerings has been written to provoke a reaction from archaeologists and has two main aims. The first is to move this kind of archaeology away from the minute study of ancient objects to a more ambitious analysis of ancient places and landscapes. The second is to recognise that problems of interpretation are not restricted to the pre-Roman period. Mesolithic finds have a place in this discussion, and so do those of the 1st millennium AD. Archaeologists studying individual periods confront with similar problems and the same debates are repeated within separate groups of scholars – but they arrive at different conclusions. Here, the author presents a review that brings these discussions together and extends across the entire sequence. Rather than offer a comprehensive survey, this is an extended essay about the strengths and weaknesses of current thinking regarding specialised deposits, which encompass both sacrificial deposits characterised by large quantities of animal and human bones and other collections which are dominated by finds of stone or metal artefacts. It considers current approaches and theory, the histories of individual artefacts and the landscape and physical context of the of places where they were deposited, the character of materials, the importance of animism and the character of ancient cosmologies.

Salt was a commodity of great importance in the ancient past, just as it is today. Its roles in promoting human health and in making food more palatable are well-known; in peasant societies it also plays a very important role in the preservation of foodstuffs and in a range of industries. Uncovering the evidence for the ancient production and use of salt has been a concern for historians over many years, but interest in the archaeology of salt has been a particular focus of research in recent times. This book charts the history of research on archaeological salt and traces the story of its production in Europe from earliest times down to the Iron Age. It presents the results of recent research, which has shown how much new evidence is now available from the different countries of Europe. The book considers new approaches to the archaeology of salt, including a GIS analysis of the oft-cited association between Bronze Age hoards and salt sources, and investigates the possibility of a new narrative of salt production in prehistoric Europe based on the role of salt in society, including issues of gender and the control of sources.The book is intended for both academics and the general reader interested in the prehistory of a fundamental but often under-appreciated commodity in the ancient past. It includes the results of the author’s own research as well as an up-to-date survey of current work.About the author:Anthony Harding is Professor of Archaeology at the University of Exeter, UK, and an authority on the European Bronze Age. He is a Fellow of the British Academy and Chairman of Trustees of the journal Antiquity. From 2003-2009 he was President of the European Association of Archaeologists.